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* url=http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/Daphnis/Pan_and_Daphnis.htm, The story of Pan and Daphnis, 20080122053903
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[[File:Roman fresco of Pan and Hermaphroditus, Pompeii.jpg|thumb|265px|Ancient Roman fresco of Pan and [[Hermaphroditus]] from the House of Dioscuri in [[Pompeii]], now in the [[National Archaeological Museum, Naples]]]]
'''パーン'''（'''Πάν'''、''Pān''<!-- [[属格]] '''Πανος'''-->）は、ギリシア神話に登場する神の一柱である。'''アイギパーン'''（'''Αἰγίπαν'''、''Aigipān'', 「山羊のパーン」の意）とも呼ばれ、ローマ神話における'''[[ファウヌス]]'''（''Faunus''）と同一視される。
日本語では長母音を省略して英語風に'''パン'''とも表記される。また意訳して'''牧神'''、'''牧羊神'''、'''半獣神'''とも呼ばれる。
In [[ancient Greek religion]] and [[Greek mythology|mythology]], '''Pan''' ({{IPAc-en|p|æ|n}};<ref>[http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/pan "Pan" (''Greek mythology'')] entry in ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]''.</ref> {{lang-grc|[[wikt:Πάν|Πάν]]|Pán}}) is the god of the wild, shepherds and flocks, [[Pastoral#Pastoral music|rustic music]] and [[impromptu]]s, and companion of the [[nymph]]s.<ref>Edwin L. Brown, "The Lycidas of Theocritus ''Idyll'' 7", ''Harvard Studies in Classical Philology'', 1981:59–100.</ref> He has the hindquarters, legs, and horns of a goat, in the same manner as a [[faun]] or [[satyr]]. With his homeland in rustic [[Arcadia (ancient region)|Arcadia]], he is also recognized as the god of fields, groves, wooded glens, and often affiliated with sex; because of this, Pan is connected to fertility and the season of spring.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/andr.12599 | doi=10.1111/andr.12599 | title=Gods associated with male fertility and virility | year=2019 | last1=Neto | first1=F. T. L. | last2=Bach | first2=P. V. | last3=Lyra | first3=R. J. L. | last4=Borges Junior | first4=J. C. | last5=Maia | first5=G. T. d. S. | last6=Araujo | first6=L. C. N. | last7=Lima | first7=S. V. C. | journal=Andrology | volume=7 | issue=3 | pages=267–272 | pmid=30786174 | s2cid=73507440 }}</ref>
In [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman religion and myth]], Pan's counterpart was [[Faunus]], a nature god who was the father of [[Bona Dea]], sometimes identified as [[Fauna (goddess)|Fauna]]; he was also closely associated with [[Silvanus (mythology)|Sylvanus]], due to their similar relationships with woodlands. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Pan became a significant figure in [[Romanticism|the Romantic movement]] of western Europe and also in the 20th-century [[Neopaganism|Neopagan movement]].<ref>''The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft'', Hutton, Ronald, chapter 3</ref>
==Origins==
Many modern scholars consider Pan to be derived from the reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European religion|Proto-Indo-European god]] ''*Péh₂usōn'', whom they believe to have been an important pastoral deity<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mallory|first1=J. P.|last2=Adams|first2=D. Q.|title=The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World|date=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=978-0-19-929668-2|page=434}}</ref> (''*Péh₂usōn'' shares an origin with the modern English word "pasture").<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=*pa-&allowed_in_frame=0 "''*pa-''"]. ''[[Online Etymology Dictionary]]''.</ref> The [[Rigveda|Rigvedic]] god [[Pushan]] is believed to be a cognate of Pan. The connection between Pan and Pushan was first identified in 1924 by the German scholar [[Hermann Collitz]].<ref>H. Collitz, "Wodan, Hermes und Pushan," ''Festskrift tillägnad Hugo Pipping pȧ hans sextioȧrsdag den 5 November 1924'' 1924, pp 574–587.</ref><ref>[[Robert S. P. Beekes|R. S. P. Beekes]], ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, p. 1149.</ref> The familiar form of the name Pan is contracted from earlier ''Πάων'', derived from the root *''peh₂-'' (guard, watch over).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|last=West|first=M. L.|date=2007-05-24|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9|pages=282|language=en}}</ref> According to Edwin L. Brown, the name ''Pan'' is probably a [[cognate]] with the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word ὀπάων "companion".<ref>Edwin L. Brown, "The Divine Name 'Pan'", ''Transactions of the American Philological Association'' '''107''' (1977:57–61), notes (p. 59) that the first inscription mentioning Pan is a 6th-century dedication to ΠΑΟΝΙ, a "still uncontracted" form.</ref>
In his earliest appearance in literature, [[Pindar]]'s Pythian Ode iii. 78, Pan is associated with a [[mother goddess]], perhaps [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] or [[Cybele]]; Pindar refers to maidens worshipping [[Cybele]] and Pan near the poet's house in [[Boeotia]].<ref>{{Gutenberg|no=10717|name=The Extant Odes of Pindar|bullet=none}}. See note 5 to Pythian Ode III, "For Heiron of Syracuse, Winner in the Horse-race."</ref>
== Worship ==
The worship of Pan began in [[Arcadia (ancient region)|Arcadia]] which was always the principal seat of his worship. Arcadia was a district of [[mountain people]], culturally separated from other Greeks. Arcadian hunters used to [[scourge]] the statue of the god if they had been disappointed in the chase.<ref>Theocritus. vii. 107</ref>
Being a rustic god, Pan was not worshipped in temples or other built edifices, but in natural settings, usually [[cave]]s or [[grotto]]es such as the one on the north slope of the [[Acropolis of Athens]]. These are often referred to as the Cave of Pan. The only exceptions are the [[Temple of Pan]] on the [[Neda (river)|Neda River]] gorge in the southwestern [[Peloponnese]] – the ruins of which survive to this day – and the Temple of Pan at [[Edfu|Apollonopolis Magna]] in [[ancient Egypt]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Horbury|first=William|title=Jewish Inscriptions of Graeco-Roman Egypt|year=1992|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=978-0-521-41870-6|page=208|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cCRC-wTphoYC&pg=PA208}}</ref> In the 4th century BC Pan was depicted on the coinage of [[Panticapaeum|Pantikapaion]].<ref>Sear, David R. (1978). ''Greek Coins and Their Values ''. Volume I: Europe (pp. 168–169). Seaby Ltd., London. {{ISBN|0 900652 46 2}}</ref>
Archaeologists while excavating a [[Byzantine]] church of around 400 CE in [[Banias|Banyas]], discovered in the walls of the church an altar of the god Pan with a Greek inscription, dating back to the 2nd or 3rd century CE. The inscription reads, "''Atheneon son of Sosipatros of [[Antioch]] is dedicating the altar to the god Pan Heliopolitanus. He built the altar using his own personal money in fulfillment of a vow he made.''"<ref>[https://www.jpost.com/archaeology/altar-to-greek-god-found-in-wall-of-byzantine-church-raises-questions-650825 Altar to Greek god found in wall of Byzantine church raises questions]</ref>
=== Epithets ===
* '''Aegocerus''' ({{Lang-grc|Αἰγόκερως|Aigókerōs|goat-horned}}) was an epithet of Pan descriptive of his figure with the horns of a goat.<ref>[[Marcus Annaeus Lucanus|Lucan]], ix. 536; [[Lucretius]], v. 614.</ref>
* '''Lyterius''' ({{Lang-grc|Λυτήριος}}), meaning ''Deliverer''. There was a sanctuary at [[Troezen]], and he had this epithet because he was believed during a plague to have revealed in dreams the proper remedy against the disease.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DL%3Aentry+group%3D22%3Aentry%3Dlyterius-bio-1 A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, Lyterius]</ref>
== Parentage ==
The parentage of Pan is unclear;<ref>W. H. Roscher, ''Ausführliches Lexikon der Gr. u. Röm. Mythologie'' (1909:1379f) finds eighteen variants for Pan's genealogy.</ref> generally he is the son of [[Hermes]] and a [[Dryad|wood nymph]], either [[Dryope]] or [[Penelope (dryad)|Penelope]] of [[Mantineia]] in Arcadia.<ref>Cicero, ''De Natura Deorum'' 3.22.56</ref><ref>Hyginus, ''[[Fabulae]]'' 224</ref><ref>Herodotus, ''Histories''(2.145)</ref><ref>Nonnus, ''Dionysiaca'' 14.92</ref> In some early sources such as [[Pindar]], his father is [[Apollo]] and mother Penelope.<ref>Pindar, Fr. 90 ([[Maurice Bowra|Bowra]])</ref> Apollodorus records two distinct divinities named Pan; one who was the son of Hermes and Penelope, and the other who had Zeus and a nymph named Hybris for his parents, and was the mentor of Apollo.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Bibliotheca'' 1.4.1 and e.7.38</ref> [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] records the story that Penelope had in fact been unfaithful to her husband, who banished her to Mantineia upon his return.<ref>Pausanias, ''Description of Ancient Greece'' 8.12.5</ref> Other sources ([[Duris of Samos]]; the Vergilian commentator [[Servius (grammarian)|Servius]]) report that Penelope slept with all 108 suitors in Odysseus' absence, and gave birth to Pan as a result.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QKMNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA305 Footnote in the ''Library'' by Apollodorus (of Athens)], edited by E. Capps PhD, LL.D.; T. E. Page, Litt.D.; W. H. D. Rouse, Litt.d.; Webster Collection of Social Anthropology, p. 305</ref> According to [[Robert Graves]], his mother was called Oeneis, a nymph who consorted with Hermes.<ref>[[Robert Graves]]. ''[[The Greek Myths]], section 26 s.v. Pan's Nature And Deeds''</ref>
[[File:Pan87.3.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Mask of the god Pan, detail from a bronze stamnoid [[situla]], 340–320 BC, part of the [[Vassil Bojkov Collection]], [[Sofia]], [[Bulgaria]]]]
This myth reflects the folk etymology that equates Pan's name (Πάν) with the Greek word for "all" (πᾶν).<ref>The [[Homeric Hymns|Homeric Hymn to Pan]] provides the earliest example of this wordplay, suggesting that Pan's name was born from the fact that he delighted "all" the gods.</ref>
In the [[mystery cult]]s of the highly syncretic [[Hellenistic religion|Hellenistic]] era,<ref>[[Mircea Eliade|Eliade, Mircea]] (1982) ''A History of Religious Ideas'' Vol. 2. University of Chicago Press. § 205.</ref> Pan is made cognate with [[Phanes (mythology)|Phanes/Protogonos]], [[Zeus]], [[Dionysus]] and [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]].<ref>In the second-century "Hieronyman Theogony', which harmonized [[Orphism (religion)|Orphic themes]] from the theogony of Protogonos with Stoicism, he is Protogonos, Phanes, Zeus and Pan; in the Orphic Rhapsodies he is additionally called Metis, Eros, Erikepaios and Bromios. The inclusion of Pan seems to be a Hellenic syncretization ([[M. L. West|West, M. L.]] (1983) The Orphic Poems. Oxford:Oxford University Press. p. 205).</ref>
Accounts of Pan's genealogy are so varied that it must lie buried deep in mythic time. Like other nature spirits, Pan appears to be older than the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympians]], if it is true that he gave [[Artemis]] her hunting dogs and taught the secret of prophecy to [[Apollo]]. Pan might be multiplied as the '''Pans''' (Burkert 1985, III.3.2; Ruck and Staples, 1994, p. 132<ref>Pan "even boasted that he had slept with every maenad that ever was—to facilitate that extraordinary feat, he could be multiplied into a whole brotherhood of Pans."</ref>) or the ''Paniskoi''. Kerenyi (p. 174) notes from [[scholia]] that [[Aeschylus]] in ''Rhesus'' distinguished between two Pans, one the son of Zeus and twin of [[Arcas]], and one a son of [[Cronus]]. "In the retinue of [[Dionysos]], or in depictions of wild landscapes, there appeared not only a great Pan, but also little Pans, Paniskoi, who played the same part as the [[Satyr]]s".
[[Herodotus]] wrote that according to Egyptian chronology, Pan was the most ancient of the gods; but according to the version in which Pan was the son of Hermes and Penelope, he was born only eight hundred years before Herodotus, and thus after the Trojan war.{{efn-lr|Herodotus was born about 485 BC, so by his reckoning Pan would have been born around 1285—''earlier'' than the Trojan War as estimated by most of the Greek antiquarians, and a century before the date reckoned by Eratosthenes.}} Herodotus concluded that that would be when the Greeks first learnt the name of Pan.<ref>[[Herodotus]], ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' II.145</ref>
== Mythology ==
=== Battle with Typhon ===
The goat-god [[Aegipan]] was nurtured by [[Amalthea (mythology)|Amalthea]] with the infant [[Zeus]] in Crete. In Zeus' battle with [[Typhon]], Aegipan and [[Hermes]] stole back Zeus' "sinews" that Typhon had hidden away in the [[Corycian Cave]].<ref>"In this story Hermes is clearly out of place. He was one of the youngest sons of Zeus and was brought into the story only because... he was a master/thief. The real participant in the story was Aigipan: the god Pan, that is to say. in his quality of a goat (''aix''). (Kerenyi, p. 28). Kerenyi points out that Python of Delphi had a son Aix ([[Plutarch]], ''Moralia'' 293c) and detects a note of kinship betrayal.</ref> Pan aided his foster-brother in the [[Titanomachy|battle with the Titans]] by letting out a horrible screech and scattering them in terror. According to some traditions, [[Aegipan]] was the son of Pan, rather than his father. The [[constellation]] [[Capricornus]] is traditionally depicted as a [[sea goat|sea-goat]], a goat with a fish's tail (see [[Hecatonchires|"Goatlike" Aigaion called Briareos, one of the Hecatonchires]]). A myth reported as "Egyptian" in [[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]]'s ''Poetic Astronomy''<ref>[[Hyginus]], ''Poetic Astronomy'' 2.18: see Theony Condos, ''Star Myths of the Greeks and Romans'' 1997:72.</ref> (which would seem to be invented to justify a connection of Pan with Capricorn) says that when [[Aegipan]]—that is Pan in his goat-god aspect<ref>Kerenyi, p. 95.</ref>—was attacked by the monster Typhon, he dived into the river [[Nile]]; the parts above the water remained a goat, but those under the water transformed into a fish.
=== Erotic aspects ===
Pan is famous for his sexual prowess and is often depicted with a [[phallus]]. [[Diogenes of Sinope]], speaking in jest, related a myth of Pan learning [[masturbation]] from his father, [[Hermes]], and teaching the habit to shepherds.<ref>[[Dio Chrysostom]], ''Discourses,'' vi. 20.</ref>
There was a legend that Pan seduced the moon goddess [[Selene]], deceiving her with a sheep's fleece.<ref>Hard, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA46 p. 46]; Gantz, p. 36; Kerenyi, pp. 175, 196; Grimal, s.v. Selene; [[Virgil]], ''[[Georgics]]'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0058%3Abook%3D3%3Acard%3D384 3.391–93] has Pan capturing and deceiving Luna with the gift of a fleece; [[Servius (grammarian)|Servius]], ''Commentary on the Georgics of Vergil'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0092%3Abook%3D3%3Acommline%3D391 391] ascribes to the Greek poet [[Nicander]] an earlier account that Pan wrapped himself in a fleece to disguise himself as a sheep..</ref>
One of the famous myths of Pan involves the origin of his [[pan flute]], fashioned from lengths of hollow reed. [[Syrinx]] was a lovely wood-[[nymph]] of Arcadia, daughter of [[Ladon (mythology)|Ladon]], the river-god. As she was returning from the hunt one day, Pan met her. To escape from his importunities, the fair nymph ran away and didn't stop to hear his compliments. He pursued from [[Mount Lycaeum]] until she came to her sisters who immediately changed her into a reed. When the air blew through the reeds, it produced a plaintive melody. The god, still infatuated, took some of the reeds, because he could not identify which reed she became, and cut seven pieces (or according to some versions, nine), joined them side by side in gradually decreasing lengths, and formed the musical instrument bearing the name of his beloved Syrinx. Henceforth, Pan was seldom seen without it.
[[File:Pan goat MAN Napoli Inv27709 n01.jpg|thumb|right|Pan having sex with a goat, statue from [[Villa of the Papyri]], [[Herculaneum]].]]
[[Echo (mythology)|Echo]] was a nymph who was a great singer and dancer and scorned the love of any man. This angered Pan, a [[lust|lecherous]] god, and he instructed his followers to kill her. Echo was torn to pieces and spread all over Earth. The goddess of the Earth, [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], received the pieces of Echo, whose voice remains repeating the last words of others. In some versions, Echo and Pan had two children: [[Iambe]] and [[Iynx]]. In other versions, Pan had fallen in love with Echo, but she scorned the love of any man but was enraptured by [[Narcissus (mythology)|Narcissus]]. As Echo was cursed by [[Hera]] to only be able to repeat words that had been said by someone else, she could not speak for herself. She followed Narcissus to a pool, where he fell in love with his own reflection and changed into a [[Narcissus (plant)|narcissus]] flower. Echo wasted away, but her voice could still be heard in caves and other such similar places.
Pan also loved a nymph named [[Pitys (mythology)|Pitys]], who was turned into a [[pine]] tree to escape him.<ref>[[William Smith (lexicographer)|Smith]] s.v. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DP%3Aentry+group%3D31%3Aentry%3Dpitys-bio-1 Pitys]</ref> In another version, Pan and the north wind god [[Anemoi#Boreas|Boreas]] clashed over the lovely Pitys. Boreas uprooted all the trees to impress her, but Pan laughed and Pitys chose him. Boreas then chased her and threw her off a cliff resulting in her death. [[Gaia]] pitied Pitys and turned her into a pine tree.<ref>[[Libanius]], ''[[Progymnasmata]]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=kRi-If9IAOYC&pg=PA27 1.4]</ref>
According to some traditions, Pan taught [[Daphnis]], a rustic son of Hermes, how to play the pan-pipes, and also fell in love with him.<ref>Cohen, pp [https://books.google.com/books?id=uBlREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 169-170]</ref><ref>Also testified by [[Pope Clement I|Clement]] in ''[[Clementine literature|Homilies]]'' [https://books.google.com/books?redir_esc=y&hl=el&id=7cIUAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA108 5.16]. Clement, a Christian pope, was trying to discredit pagans and their beliefs in his works, however other finds seem to support this particular claim.</ref>
Women who had had sexual relations with several men were referred to as "Pan girls."<ref>{{cite book |last=Lane Fox |first=Robin |date=1988 |title= Pagans and Christians |location = London | publisher = Penguin Books | page = 130 | isbn = 0-14-009737-6}}</ref>
=== Panic ===
Disturbed in his secluded afternoon naps, Pan's angry shout inspired [[panic]] (''panikon deima'') in lonely places.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Pan_%28mythology%29/ |title=Pan (mythology) – Discussion and Encyclopedia Article. Who is Pan (mythology)? What is Pan (mythology)? Where is Pan (mythology)? Definition of Pan (mythology). Meaning of Pan (mythology) |publisher=Knowledgerush.com |access-date=2012-08-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121010181338/http://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Pan_(mythology)/ |archive-date=10 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>Robert Graves,''The Greek Myths'', p.101</ref> Following the Titans' assault on [[Mount Olympus|Olympus]], Pan claimed credit for the victory of the gods because he had frightened the attackers. In the [[Battle of Marathon]] (490 BC), it is said that Pan favored the Athenians and so inspired panic in the hearts of their enemies, the Persians.<ref name="EB1911">{{cite EB1911 | wstitle = Pan (mythology) | display = Pan | volume = 20 | pages = 662–663}}</ref>
=== Music ===
[[File:Sweet, piercing sweet was the music of Pan's pipe.jpg|thumb|left|"Sweet, piercing sweet was the music of Pan's pipe" reads the caption on this depiction of Pan (by [[Walter Crane]])]]
In two late Roman sources, [[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]]<ref>Hyginus, ''[[Fabulae]]'', 191 ([http://www.theoi.com/Georgikos/Pan.html#Apollon on-line source]).</ref> and [[Ovid]],<ref>Ovid, ''[[Metamorphoses]]'', 11.146ff ([http://www.theoi.com/Georgikos/Pan.html#Apollon on-line source]).</ref> Pan is substituted for the satyr [[Marsyas]] in the theme of a musical competition (''[[agon]]''), and the punishment by flaying is omitted.
Pan once had the audacity to compare his music with that of [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], and to challenge Apollo, the god of the [[lyre]], to a trial of skill. [[Tmolus (son of Ares)|Tmolus]], the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes and gave great satisfaction with his rustic melody to himself and to his faithful follower, [[Midas]], who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. Midas dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer and turned Midas' ears into those of a [[donkey]].<ref>Ovid, ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' XI: 146-194</ref>
=== All of the Pans ===
{{More citations needed section|1=sons of Pan|2=Agreus, Nomios, Aegipan|date=October 2021}}
[[File:Table support with a Dionysiac group (AD 170-180) (3470740119).jpg|thumb|Marble table support adorned by a group including [[Dionysos]], Pan and a [[Satyr]]; Dionysos holds a [[rhyton]] (drinking vessel) in the shape of a panther; traces of [[Red hair|red]] and [[Blond|yellow colour]] are preserved on [[Hair color|the hair]] of the figures and the branches; from an [[Asia Minor]] workshop, 170–180 AD, [[National Archaeological Museum, Athens]], Greece]]
Pan could be multiplied into a swarm of Pans, and even be given individual names, as in [[Nonnus]]' ''[[Dionysiaca]]'', where the god Pan had twelve sons that helped Dionysus in his war against the Indians. Their names were Kelaineus, Argennon, Aigikoros, Eugeneios, Omester, Daphoenus, Phobos, Philamnos, Xanthos, Glaukos, Argos, and Phorbas.
Two other Pans were [[Agreus & Nomios|Agreus]] and [[Agreus & Nomios|Nomios]]. Both were the sons of Hermes, Agreus' mother being the nymph Sose, a prophetess: he inherited his mother's gift of prophecy, and was also a skilled hunter. Nomios' mother was Penelope (not the same as the wife of Odysseus). He was an excellent shepherd, seducer of nymphs, and musician upon the shepherd's pipes. Most of the mythological stories about Pan are actually about Nomios, not the god Pan. Although, Agreus and Nomios could have been two different aspects of the prime Pan, reflecting his dual nature as both a wise prophet and a lustful beast.
[[Aegipan]], literally "goat-Pan," was a Pan who was fully goatlike, rather than half-goat and half-man. When the Olympians fled from the monstrous giant Typhoeus and hid themselves in animal form, Aegipan assumed the form of a fish-tailed goat. Later he came to the aid of Zeus in his battle with Typhoeus, by stealing back Zeus' stolen sinews. As a reward the king of the gods placed him amongst the stars as the Constellation Capricorn. The mother of Aegipan, Aix (the goat), was perhaps associated with the constellation Capra.
Sybarios was an Italian Pan who was worshipped in the Greek colony of [[Sybaris]] in [[Italy]]. The Sybarite Pan was conceived when a Sybarite shepherd boy named Krathis copulated with a pretty she-goat amongst his herds.
=="The great god Pan is dead"<span class="anchor" id="The great god Pan is dead"></span>==
According to the Greek historian [[Plutarch]] (in ''De defectu oraculorum'', "The Obsolescence of Oracles"),<ref>''Moralia'', Book 5:17.</ref> Pan is the only Greek god who actually dies. During the reign of [[Tiberius]] (AD 14–37), the news of Pan's death came to one Thamus, a sailor on his way to Italy by way of the Greek island of [[Paxi]]. A divine voice hailed him across the salt water, "Thamus, are you there? When you reach [[Pelodes|Palodes]],<ref>[http://omega.cohums.ohio-state.edu/mailing_lists/CLA-L/2002/07/0398.php "Where or what was Palodes?"].</ref> take care to proclaim that the great god Pan is dead." Which Thamus did, and the news was greeted from shore with groans and laments.
[[Christian Apologetics|Christian apologists]], including [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], have long made much of Plutarch's story of the death of Pan. Due to the word "all" in Greek also being "pan," a pun was made that "all demons" had perished.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lane Fox |first=Robin |date=1988 |title= Pagans and Christians |location=London |publisher=Penguin Books |page=130 |isbn=0-14-009737-6}}</ref>
In [[Rabelais]]' ''[[Fourth Book of Pantagruel]]'' (16th century), the Giant [[Pantagruel]], after recollecting the tale as told by Plutarch, opines that the announcement was actually about the death of [[Jesus Christ]], which did take place at about the same time (towards the end of [[Tiberius]]' reign), noting the aptness of the name: "for he may lawfully be said in the Greek tongue to be Pan, since he is our all. For all that we are, all that we live, all that we have, all that we hope, is him, by him, from him, and in him."<ref>François Rabelais, Fourth Book of Pantagruel (''Le Quart Livre''), Chap. 28 [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Fourth_Book/Chapter_XXVIII].</ref> In this interpretation, Rabelais was following [[Guillaume Postel]] in his ''De orbis terrae concordia''.<ref>Guillaume Postel, ''De orbis terrae concordia'', Book 1, Chapter 7.</ref>
The 19th-century visionary [[Anne Catherine Emmerich]], in a twist echoed nowhere else, claims that the phrase "the Great Pan" was actually a demonic epithet for [[Jesus Christ]], and that "Thamus, or Tramus" was a watchman in the port of [[Nicaea]], who, at the time of the other spectacular events surrounding Christ's death, was then commissioned to spread this message, which was later garbled "in repetition."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Emmerich |first1=Anne Catherine |title=The Life of Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, volume IV |date=2006 |publisher=Saint Benedict Press |location=Charlotte, NC |isbn=9781905574131 |page=309 |url=https://tandfspi.org/ACE_vol_04/ACE_4_0301_out.html#ACE_4_p0309 |access-date=16 May 2021}}</ref>
In modern times, [[G. K. Chesterton]] has repeated and amplified the significance of the "death" of Pan, suggesting that with the "death" of Pan came the advent of theology. To this effect, Chesterton claimed, "It is said truly in a sense that Pan died because Christ was born. It is almost as true in another sense that men knew that Christ was born because Pan was already dead. A void was made by the vanishing world of the whole mythology of mankind, which would have asphyxiated like a vacuum if it had not been filled with theology."<ref>G.K. Chesterton, [http://www.worldinvisible.com/library/chesterton/everlasting/part1c8.htm "The End of the World"], ''The Everlasting Man'', 1925</ref><ref>{{cite book |date=1986 |title=The Collected Works of G.K. Chesterton II |location=San Francisco |publisher=Ignatius Press |pages=292 |isbn=978-0-89870-116-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |date=2004 |title=Orthodoxy |location=New York |publisher=Dover Publications, Inc. |pages=69 |isbn=978-0-486-43701-9}}</ref> It was interpreted with [[Polysemy|concurrent meanings]] [[Allegory in the Middle Ages|in all four modes of medieval ''exegesis'']]: literally as historical fact, and [[allegory|allegorically]] as the death of the ancient order at the coming of the new.{{Original research inline|date=July 2013}}
In more modern times, some have suggested a possible naturalistic explanation for the myth. For example, [[Robert Graves]] (''The Greek Myths'') reported a suggestion that had been made by Salomon Reinach<ref>Reinach, in ''Bulletin des correspondents helleniques'' '''31''' (1907:5–19), noted by Van Teslaar.</ref> and expanded by James S. Van Teslaar<ref>Van Teslaar, "The Death of Pan: a classical instance of verbal misinterpretation", ''The Psychoanalytic Review'' '''8''' (1921:180–83).</ref> that the sailors actually heard the excited shouts of the worshipers of [[Tammuz (deity)|Tammuz]], {{lang|grc|Θαμούς πανμέγας τέθνηκε}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|Thamoús panmégas téthnēke}}, "All-great Tammuz is dead!"), and misinterpreted them as a message directed to an Egyptian sailor named 'Thamus': "Great Pan is Dead!" Van Teslaar explains, "[i]n its true form the phrase would have probably carried no meaning to those on board who must have been unfamiliar with the worship of Tammuz which was a transplanted, and for those parts, therefore, an exotic custom."<ref>Van Teslaar 1921:180.</ref> Certainly, when [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] toured Greece about a century after Plutarch, he found Pan's shrines, sacred caves and sacred mountains still very much frequented. However, a naturalistic explanation might not be needed. For example, [[William Hansen (classicist)|William Hansen]]<ref>William Hansen (2002) "Ariadne's thread: A guide to international tales found in classical literature" Cornell University Press. pp.133–136</ref> has shown that the story is quite similar to a class of widely known tales known as ''Fairies Send a Message.''
The cry "The Great Pan is dead" has appealed to poets, such as [[John Milton]], in his ecstatic celebration of Christian peace, ''[[On the Morning of Christ's Nativity]]'' line 89,<ref>Kathleen M. Swaim, "'Mighty Pan': Tradition and an Image in Milton's Nativity 'Hymn'", ''Studies in Philology'' '''68'''.4 (October 1971:484–495).<!--"ecstatically celebrates Christian peace", p. 484-->.</ref> and [[Elizabeth Barrett Browning]].<ref>See Corinne Davies, "Two of Elizabeth Barrett Browning's Pan poems and their after-life in Robert Browning's 'Pan and Luna'", ''Victorian Poetry'' '''44,'''.4, (Winter 2006:561–569).</ref>
==Influence==
===Literary revival===
In the late 18th century, interest in Pan revived among liberal scholars. [[Richard Payne Knight]] discussed Pan in his ''Discourse on the Worship of Priapus'' (1786) as a symbol of creation expressed through sexuality. "Pan is represented pouring water upon the organ of generation; that is, invigorating the active creative power by the prolific element."<ref>Payne-Knight, R. ''Discourse on the Worship of Priapus'', 1786, p.73</ref>
[[John Keats]]'s [[Endymion (poem)|"Endymion"]] (1818) opens with a festival dedicated to Pan where a stanzaic hymn is sung in praise of him. Keats's account of Pan's activities is largely drawn from the Elizabethan poets. Douglas Bush notes, "The goat-god, the tutelary divinity of shepherds, had long been allegorized on various levels, from Christ to 'Universall Nature' [[George Sandys|(Sandys)]]; here he becomes the symbol of the romantic imagination, of supra-mortal knowledge.{{'"}}<ref>Barnard, John. ''John Keats : The Complete Poems'', p. 587, {{ISBN|978-0-14-042210-8}}</ref>
In the late 19th century Pan became an increasingly common figure in literature and art. Patricia Merivale states that between 1890 and 1926 there was an "astonishing resurgence of interest in the Pan motif".<ref>Merivale, Patricia. ''Pan the Goat-God: his Myth in Modern Times'', Harvard University Press, 1969, p.vii.</ref> He appears in poetry, in novels and children's books, and is referenced in the name of the character [[Peter Pan]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Lurie, Alison|title=Afterword in ''Peter Pan''|publisher=[[Signet Books|Signet]]|date=2003|page=198|isbn=9780451520883|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6m9UTvQq7ZsC&pg=PA198}}</ref> In the [[Peter Pan]] stories, Peter represents a golden age of pre-civilisation in both the minds of very young children, before enculturation and education, and in the natural world outside the influence of humans. Peter Pan's character is both charming and selfish emphasizing our cultural confusion about whether human instincts are natural and good, or uncivilised and bad. [[J. M. Barrie]] describes Peter as ‘a betwixt and between’, part animal and part human, and uses this device to explore many issues of human and animal psychology within the Peter Pan stories.<ref>{{cite book|title=Peter Pan and the Mind of J M Barrie|last=Ridley|first=Rosalind|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|year=2016|isbn=978-1-4438-9107-3|location=UK}}</ref>
[[Arthur Machen]]'s 1894 novella ''[[The Great God Pan]]'' uses the god's name in a simile about the whole world being revealed as it really is: "seeing the Great God Pan". The novella is considered by many (including [[Stephen King]]) as being one of the greatest horror stories ever written.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://americanliterature.com/author/arthur-machen/novella/the-great-god-pan/summary |title=The Great God Pan by Arthur Machen |website=American Literature |access-date=May 18, 2021}}</ref>
In an article in [[Hellebore (magazine)|''Hellebore'']] magazine, [[Melissa Edmundson]] argues that women writers from the 19th century used the figure of Pan "to reclaim agency in texts that explored female empowerment and sexual liberation". In [[Eleanor Farjeon]]'s poem "Pan-Worship", the speaker tries to summon Pan to life after feeling "a craving in me", wishing for a "spring-tide" that will replace the stagnant "autumn" of the soul. A dark version of Pan's seductiveness appears in [[Margery Lawrence]]'s ''Robin's Rath'', who both gives and takes life and vitality.
Pan is the eponymous "Piper at the Gates of Dawn" in the seventh chapter of [[Kenneth Grahame]]'s ''[[The Wind in the Willows]]'' (1908). Grahame's Pan, unnamed but clearly recognisable, is a powerful but secretive nature-god, protector of animals, who casts a spell of forgetfulness on all those he helps. He makes a brief appearance to help the Rat and Mole recover the Otter's lost son Portly.
The goat-footed god entices villagers to listen to his pipes as if in a trance in [[Lord Dunsany]]'s novel ''The Blessing of Pan'' (1927). Although the god does not appear within the story, his energy invokes the younger folk of the village to revel in the summer twilight, while the vicar of the village is the only person worried about the revival of worship for the old pagan god.
Pan is featured as a prominent character in [[Tom Robbins]]' ''[[Jitterbug Perfume]]'' (1984).
The British writer and editor Mark Beech of Egaeus Press published in 2015 the [[limited-edition]] anthology ''Soliloquy for Pan''<ref>{{cite book|last1=Beech|first1=Mark|title=Soliloquy for Pan|date=2015|publisher=Egaeuspress|location=UK|isbn=978-0-957160682|pages=350 pp|edition=Illustrated. First ed. limited to 300 copies}}</ref> which includes essays and poems such as "The Rebirthing of Pan" by Adrian Eckersley, "Pan's Pipes" by [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], "Pan with Us" by [[Robert Frost]], and "The Death of Pan" by [[Lord Dunsany]]. Some of the detailed illustrated depictions of Pan included in the volume are by the artists [[Giorgio Ghisi]], [[Sir James Thornhill]], [[Bernard Picart]], [[Agostino Veneziano]], [[Vincenzo Cartari]], and [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]].
=== Revival in music ===
Pan inspired pieces of classical music by [[Claude Debussy]]. [[Syrinx (Debussy)|''Syrinx'']], written as part of [[incidental music]] to the play ''Psyché'' by [[Gabriel Mourey]], was originally called "Flûte de Pan". ''[[Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune]]'' was based on a poem by [[Stéphane Mallarmé]].
The British rock band [[Pink Floyd]] named its first album "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn" in reference to Pan, as he appeared in ''[[The Wind in the Willows]].'' Andrew King, Pink Floyd's manager, said Syd Barrett "thought Pan had given him an understanding into the way nature works. It formed into his holistic view of the world."<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Soar |first=Katy |date=2022 |title=The Piper at the Gates of Dawn |url= |journal=Hellebore |volume=8 |issue=The Unveiling Issue |pages=10-19}}</ref>
Founding member of [[The Rolling Stones]] [[Brian Jones]] strongly identified with Pan.<ref name=":0" /> He produced the live album [[Brian Jones Presents the Pipes of Pan at Joujouka]], about a Moroccan festival that evoked the ancient Roman rites of Pan.
Musician [[Mike Scott (Scottish musician)|Mike Scott]] of the [[The Waterboys|Waterboys]] refers to Pan as the archetypal force within us all, and talks about his search of "The Pan Within", reflected in songs such as "The Return of Pan".<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Soar |first=Katy |date=2020 |title=The Great Pan in Albion |journal=Hellebore |volume=2 |issue=The Wild Gods Issue |pages=14-27}}</ref>
=== Revived worship ===
In the English town of [[Painswick]] in [[Gloucestershire]], a group of 18th-century gentry, led by Benjamin Hyett, organised an annual procession dedicated to Pan, during which a statue of the deity was held aloft, and people shouted "Highgates! Highgates!" Hyett also erected temples and follies to Pan in the gardens of his house and a "Pan's lodge", located over Painswick Valley. The tradition died out in the 1830s, but was revived in 1885 by the new vicar, W. H. Seddon, who mistakenly believed that the festival had been ancient in origin. One of Seddon's successors, however, was less appreciative of the pagan festival and put an end to it in 1950, when he had Pan's statue buried.<ref>Hutton, Ronald. ''The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft'' pp 161–162</ref>
Occultists [[Aleister Crowley]] and [[Victor Benjamin Neuburg|Victor Neuburg]] built an altar to Pan on Da'leh Addin, a mountain in Algeria, where they performed a magic ceremony to summon the god. In the final rite of the ritual play''[[Rites of Eleusis|The Rites of Eleusis]]'', written by Crowley, Pan "pulls back the final veil, revealing the child Horus, who represents humanity's eternal and divine element.<ref name=":1" />"
A modern account of several purported meetings with Pan is given by [[Robert Ogilvie Crombie]] in ''The Findhorn Garden'' (Harper & Row, 1975) and ''The Magic of Findhorn'' (Harper & Row, 1975). Crombie claimed to have met Pan many times at various locations in Scotland, including [[Edinburgh]], on the island of [[Iona]] and at the [[Findhorn Foundation]].
[[Aerospace engineering|Aeronautical engineer]] and [[occultist]] [[John Whiteside Parsons|Jack Parsons]] invoked Pan before test launches at the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]].
=== Neopaganism ===
In 1933, the Egyptologist [[Margaret Murray]] published the book ''The God of the Witches'', in which she theorised that Pan was merely one form of a [[horned god]] who was worshipped across Europe by a [[Witch Cult hypothesis|witch-cult]].<ref name="T">{{cite book|author=Hutton, Robert|title=The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft|url=https://archive.org/details/triumphofmoonhis00hutt|url-access=registration|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=1999|isbn=978-0-19-820744-3}}</ref> This theory influenced the [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] notion of the Horned God, as an [[archetype]] of male virility and sexuality. In [[Wicca]], the archetype of the Horned God is highly important, as represented by such deities as the Celtic [[Cernunnos]], the Hindu [[Pashupati]], and the Greek Pan.
=== Identification with Satan ===
[[File:Francisco de Goya y Lucientes - Witches' Sabbath - WGA10007.jpg|thumb|[[Francisco Goya]], ''[[Witches' Sabbath (Goya, 1798)|Witches' Sabbath (El aquelarre)]],'' of [[Akelarre (witchcraft)|Basque mythology]]. 1798. Oil on canvas, 44 × 31 cm. Museo Lázaro Galdiano, Madrid.]]
Pan's goatish image recalls conventional [[faun]]-like depictions of [[Satan]]. The similarities between conventional representations of Pan and the Devil were observed by the occultists [[Aleister Crowley]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Aleister Crowley |title=777 and Other Qabalistic Correspondences 1970}}</ref> and [[Anton LaVey|Anton Szandor LaVey]], the latter of whom said in ''The Satanic Bible'':
{{quote|
Many pleasures revered before the advent of Christianity were condemned by the new religion. It required little change-over to transform the horns and cloven hooves of Pan into a most convincing devil! Pan’s attributes could neatly be changed into charged-with-punishment sins, and so the metamorphosis was complete.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anton LaVey |title=The Satanic Bible 1969}}</ref>}}
==See also==
{{div col begin |colwidth=15em}}
* [[Aristaeus]]
* [[Dryad]]
* [[Golden Age]]
* [[Kokopelli]]
* [[Pan in popular culture]]
* ''[[Pan (White)|Pan]]'', sculpture by Roger White
* [[Pangu]]
* [[Puck (mythology)|Puck]]
* [[Cernunnos]]
* [[Green Man]]
* [[Woodwose]]
==Sources==
* {{cite book|last=Borgeaud|first=Philippe|year=1979|title=Recherches sur le Dieu Pan|publisher=Geneva University}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Walter Burkert|last=Burkert|first=Walter|year=1985|title=Greek Religion|publisher=Harvard University Press}}
* {{cite book | title = Not the Classical Ideal: Athens and the Construction of the Other in Greek Art | first = Beth | last = Cohen | publisher = [[Brill Publications]] | date = November 22, 2021 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=uBlREAAAQBAJ | isbn =978-90-04-11618-4 | location = [[Leiden]], the [[Netherlands]]}}
* Diotima (2007), ''The Goat Foot God'', Bibliotheca Alexandrina.
* Hard, Robin, ''The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology"'', Psychology Press, 2004, {{ISBN|9780415186360}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&printsec=frontcover Google Books].
* [[Timothy Gantz|Gantz, Timothy]], ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: {{ISBN|978-0-8018-5360-9}} (Vol. 1), {{ISBN|978-0-8018-5362-3}} (Vol. 2).
* Grimal, Pierre, ''The Dictionary of Classical Mythology'', Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. {{ISBN|978-0-631-20102-1}}.
* {{cite book|author-link=Károly Kerényi|author=Kerényi, Károly|year=1951|title=The Gods of the Greeks|publisher=Thames & Hudson}}
* Laurie, Allison, "Afterword" in ''Peter Pan'', J. M. Barrie, Signet Classic, 1987. {{ISBN|978-0-451-52088-3}}.
* Malini, Roberto (1998), ''Pan dio della selva'', Edizioni dell'Ambrosino, Milano.
* {{cite book|last=Ruck|first=Carl A. P.|author2=Danny Staples|year=1994|title=The World of Classical Myth|publisher=Carolina Academic Press|isbn=0-89089-575-9}}
* [[Servius (grammarian)|Servius]], ''Commentary on the Georgics of Vergil'', Georgius Thilo, Ed. 1881. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0092%3Abook%3D1%3Acommline%3Dpr Online version at the Perseus Digital Library (Latin)].
* [[Virgil]], ''Georgics'' in ''Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics Of Vergil''. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Verg.+G.+1.1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
* Vinci, Leo (1993), ''Pan: Great God Of Nature'', Neptune Press, London.
==External links==
*[http://www.theoi.com/Georgikos/Phaunos.html Original resources on Faunus/Phaunos]
*[http://www.theoi.com/Georgikos/Pan.html Original resources on Pan]
== 概説 ==
Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneumも参照のこと。
== 参考文献 ==
* Wikipedia：[https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%91%E3%83%BC%E3%83%B3_(%E3%82%AE%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A2%E7%A5%9E%E8%A9%B1) パーン (ギリシア神話)]（最終閲覧日：23-01-06）
== 外部リンク ==
* url=http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/Daphnis/Pan_and_Daphnis.htm, The story of Pan and Daphnis, 20080122053903
== 関連項目 ==
* [[シルウァーヌス]] ([[:en:Silvanus (mythology)|Silvanus (mythology]])
* [[パンパイプ]]
== 参照 ==
