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モリガンにはメイヘ<ref>Meiche.</ref>という名の息子が存在したが、[[ディアン・ケヒト]]によって殺害された<ref>グリーン, 1997, page133</ref>。
The Morrígan is mainly associated with [[war]] and [[fate]], especially with foretelling doom, death, or victory in battle. In this role she often appears as a crow, the ''[[badb]]''.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=The Celtic Myths: A Guide to the Ancient Gods and Legends |last=Aldhouse-Green |first=Miranda |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-500-25209-3 |location=New York |page=125}}</ref> She incites warriors to battle and can help bring about victory over their enemies. The Morrígan encourages warriors to do brave deeds, strikes fear into their enemies, and is portrayed washing the bloodstained clothes of those fated to die.{{sfn|Ó hÓgáin|1991}}<ref name=sessle>{{Cite journal |last=Sessle |first=Erica J. |year=1994 |title=Exploring the Limitations of the Sovereignty Goddess through the Role of Rhiannon |journal=Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium |volume=14 |pages=9–13 |issn=1545-0155 |jstor=20557270}}</ref> She is most frequently seen as a goddess of battle and war and has also been seen as a manifestation of the [[Sovereignty goddess|earth- and sovereignty-goddess]],{{sfn|Ó hÓgáin|1991|pp=307–309}}<ref name="Koch, John T. 2006">Koch, John T. ''Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia''. ABC-CLIO, 2006. p.1622</ref> chiefly representing the goddess's role as [[Tutelary deity|guardian]] of the territory and its people.<ref name="lysaght">{{cite book |last=Lysaght |first=Patricia |chapter=Traditions of the Banshee |editor1-first=Miranda |editor1-last=Green |editor2-first=Sandra |editor2-last=Billington |title=The Concept of the Goddess |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1996 |pages=157–163}}</ref><ref name="tymoczko">{{cite book |author-link=Maria Tymoczko |last=Tymoczko |first=Maria |title=The Irish Ulysses |publisher=University of California Press |year=1994 |pages=98–101}}</ref>
The Morrígan is often described as a [[Triple deity|trio]] of individuals, all sisters, called "the three Morrígna".{{sfn|Ó hÓgáin|1991|pp=307–309}}<ref>{{Cite book | last= Sjoestedt | first=Marie-Louise | author-link=Marie-Louise Sjoestedt| title=Celtic Gods and Heroes | date= 18 September 2000| publisher=Dover Publications | isbn=978-0-486-41441-6 | pages=31–32}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last=Davidson | first=Hilda Ellis | title=Myths and symbols in pagan Europe: early Scandinavian and Celtic religions | year=1988 | publisher=Syracuse University Press | location=Syracuse | isbn=978-0-8156-2441-7 | pages=97}}</ref> Membership of the triad varies; sometimes it is given as [[Badb]], [[Macha]], and [[Nemain]]{{sfn|MacKillop|1998|pp=335–336}} while elsewhere it is given as Badb, Macha, and [[Anu (Irish_goddess)|Anand]] (the latter is given as another name for the Morrígan).<ref name="LGE-62,64">''[http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/lebor4.html Lebor Gabála Érenn §62, 64]: "Badb and Macha and Anand... were the three daughters of Ernmas the she-farmer." "[[Badb]] and Morrigu, whose name was Anand."</ref> It is believed that these were all names for the same goddess.{{sfn|Ó hÓgáin|1991|pp=307–309}}<ref name="MacCana">{{cite book |last=Mac Cana |first=Prionsias |url=http://www.ricorso.net/rx/library/criticism/classic/Celtiana/M-Cana_P/Celtic_Myth/3_Goddess.htm |chapter=The Goddesses of the Insular Celts |title=Celtic Mythology |publisher=Hamlyn |year=1970}}</ref> The three Morrígna are also named as sisters of the three land goddesses [[Ériu]], [[Banba]], and [[Fódla]]. The Morrígan is described as the envious wife of [[The Dagda]] and a shape-shifting goddess,<ref>[https://celt.ucc.ie//published/T106500D/text049.html ''The Metrical Dindsenchas''] "Odras" Poem 49</ref> while Badb and Nemain are said to be the wives of [[Neit]].{{sfn|Ó hÓgáin|1991|pp=307–309}} She is associated with the [[banshee]] of later folklore.{{sfn|Ó hÓgáin|1991|pp=307–309}}
==Etymology==
There is some disagreement over the meaning of the Morrígan's name. ''Mor'' may derive from an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] root connoting terror, monstrousness [[cognate]] with the [[Old English]] ''maere'' (which survives in the modern English word "nightmare") and the Scandinavian ''[[mare (folklore)|mara]]'' and the [[Old East Slavic]] "mara" ("nightmare");{{sfn|DIL|1990|pp=467–468}} while ''rígan'' translates as "queen".{{sfn|DIL|1990|p=507}}<ref name="maryjones.us">[https://www.maryjones.us/jce/morrigan.html Jones Celtic Encyclopedia Entry: ''Morrigan'']</ref> This etymological sequence can be reconstructed in the [[Proto-Celtic language]] as *''Moro-rīganī-s''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/institutes/sassi/spns/ProtoCelt.pdf |title=Proto-Celtic – English wordlist |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927041947/http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/institutes/sassi/spns/ProtoCelt.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=nightmare |work=EtymologyOnline |title="nightmare"}}</ref> Accordingly, ''Morrígan'' is often translated as "Phantom Queen".<ref name="maryjones.us"/> This is the derivation generally favoured in current scholarship.{{sfn|Clark|1990}}
In the [[Middle Irish]] period, the name is often spelled ''Mórrígan'' with a lengthening diacritic over the ''o'', seemingly intended to mean "Great Queen" (Old Irish ''mór'', "great";{{sfn|DIL|1990|pp=467–468}} this would derive from a hypothetical [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]] *''Māra Rīganī-s'').<ref>Alexander McBain, ''An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language'', 1911: ''[http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/MB2/mb27.html#mór mór]'', ''[http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/MB2/mb30.html#rìbhinn ribhinn]''</ref> [[Whitley Stokes]] believed this latter spelling was due to a [[false etymology]] popular at the time.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Whitley Stokes |last=Stokes |first=Whitley |year=1891 |chapter=Notes to "The Second Battle of Moytura" |title=[[Études Celtiques]]'' xii |page=128}}</ref> There have also been attempts by modern writers to link the Morrígan with the [[Welsh-language literature|Welsh literary]] figure [[Morgan le Fay]] from the [[Matter of Britain]], in whose name ''mor'' may derive from Welsh word for "sea", but the names are derived from different cultures and branches of the Celtic linguistic tree.{{sfn|DIL|1990|pp=467–468}}
==Sources==
===Glosses and glossaries===
The earliest sources for the Morrígan are [[gloss (annotation)|glosses]] in Latin manuscripts and glossaries (collections of glosses). In a 9th century manuscript containing the [[Vulgate]] version of the [[Book of Isaiah]], the word ''[[Lamia]]'' is used to translate the Hebrew ''[[Lilith]]''.<ref>Isaiah 34:14 "And wild beasts shall meet with hyenas, the satyr shall cry to his fellow; yea, there shall the ''night hag'' alight, and find for herself a resting place." (Revised Standard Version, emphasis added)</ref> A gloss explains this as "a monster in female form, that is, a ''morrígan''."{{sfn|Epstein|1998|pp=45–51}} ''[[Sanas Cormaic|Cormac's Glossary]]'' (also 9th century), and a gloss in the later manuscript H.3.18, both explain the plural word ''gudemain'' ("spectres"){{sfn|DIL|1990|p=372}} with the plural form ''morrígna''.{{sfn|Epstein|1998|pp=45–51}} The 8th century ''O'Mulconry's Glossary'' says that [[Macha]] is one of the three ''morrígna''.{{sfn|Epstein|1998|pp=45–51}}
===Ulster Cycle===
The Morrígan's earliest narrative appearances, in which she is depicted as an individual,<ref name="CELT-Regamna">{{cite book |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/online/G301005/text002.html |title=Táin Bó Regamna |work=Corpus of Electronic Texts Edition |page=33 |author=Unknown}}</ref> are in stories of the [[Ulster Cycle]], where she has an ambiguous relationship with the hero [[Cú Chulainn|Cúchulainn]]. In the ''[[Táin Bó#Tains|Táin Bó Regamna]]'' ("''The Cattle Raid of Regamain''"), Cúchulainn encounters the Morrígan, but does not recognise her, as she drives a [[cow|heifer]] from his territory. In response to this perceived challenge, and his ignorance of her role as a sovereignty figure, he insults her. But before he can attack her she becomes a black bird on a nearby branch. Cúchulainn now knows who she is, and tells her that had he known before, they would not have parted in enmity. She notes that whatever he had done would have brought him ill luck. To his response that she cannot harm him, she delivers a series of warnings, foretelling a coming battle in which he will be killed. She tells him, "It is at the guarding of thy death that I am; and I shall be."<ref>"[http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/regamna.html The Cattle Raid of Regamna]", translated by A. H. Leahy, from ''Heroic Romances of Ireland'' Vol II, 1906</ref>
In the ''[[Táin Bó Cúailnge]]'' ("''The Cattle Raid of Cooley''"), Queen [[Medb]] of [[Connacht]] launches an invasion of [[Ulaid|Ulster]] to steal the bull [[Donn Cuailnge]]; the Morrígan, like [[Alecto]] of the Greek [[Erinyes|Furies]], appears to the bull in the form of a crow and warns him to flee.{{sfn|O'Rahilly|1976|p=152}} Cúchulainn defends Ulster by fighting a series of single combats at fords against Medb's champions. In between combats, the Morrígan appears to him as a young woman and offers him her love and her aid in the battle, but he rejects her offer. In response, she intervenes in his next combat, first in the form of an eel who trips him, then as a wolf who stampedes cattle across the ford, and finally as a white, red-eared heifer leading the stampede, just as she had warned in their previous encounter. However, Cúchulainn wounds her in each form and defeats his opponent despite her interference. Later, she appears to him as an old woman bearing the same three wounds that her animal forms had sustained, milking a cow. She gives Cúchulainn three drinks of milk. He blesses her with each drink, and her wounds are healed.{{sfn|O'Rahilly|1976|pp=176–177, 180–182}}<ref>{{cite book |first=Cecile (ed & trans) |last=O'Rahilly |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T301035/index.html |title=Táin Bó Cualnge'' from the Book of Leinster'' |year=1967|pages=193–197}}</ref> He regrets blessing her for the three drinks of milk, which is apparent in the exchange between the Morrígan and Cúchulainn: "She gave him milk from the third teat, and her leg was healed. 'You told me once,' she said,'that you would never heal me.' 'Had I known it was you,' said Cúchulainn, 'I never would have.'"<ref>{{cite book |first=Ciaran |last=Carson |title=The Táin: A New Translation of the Táin Bó Cúlailnge |year=2007 |page=96}}</ref> As the armies gather for the final battle, she prophesies the bloodshed to come.{{sfn|O'Rahilly|1976|pp=229–230}}
In one version of Cúchulainn's death-tale, as Cúchulainn rides to meet his enemies, he encounters the Morrígan as a [[hag]] washing his bloody armour in a ford, an omen of his death. Later in the story, mortally wounded, Cúchulainn ties himself to a [[standing stone]] with his own entrails so he can die upright, and it is only when a crow lands on his shoulder that his enemies believe he is dead.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/cuchulain3.html |title=The Death of Cú Chulainn |work=Celtic Literature Collective}}</ref>
===Mythological Cycle===
The Morrígan also appears in texts of the [[Mythological Cycle]]. In 12th-century pseudohistorical compilation the ''[[Lebor Gabála Érenn]]'' ("''The Book of the Taking of Ireland''"), she is listed among the [[Tuatha Dé Danann]] as one of the daughters of [[Ernmas]], granddaughter of [[Nuada]].<ref name="LGE-62,64"/>
The first three daughters of Ernmas are given as [[Ériu]], [[Banba]], and [[Fódla]]. Their names are synonyms for "Ireland", and they were respectively married to [[Mac Gréine]], [[Mac Cuill]], and [[Mac Cecht|Mac Cécht]], the last three Tuatha Dé Danann kings of Ireland. Associated with the land and kingship, they probably represent a [[triple deity|triple goddess]] of sovereignty. Next come Ernmas' other three daughters: [[Badb]], [[Macha]], and the Morrígan. A quatrain describes the three as wealthy, "springs of craftiness", and "sources of bitter fighting". The Morrígu's name is also said to be Anand.<ref name="LGE-62,64"/> According to [[Geoffrey Keating]]'s 17th-century ''History of Ireland'', Ériu, Banba, and Fódla worshipped Badb, Macha, and the Morrígan respectively.<ref>{{cite book |first=Geoffrey |last=Keating |title=The History of Ireland |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100054/text021.html |chapter=Book 2 Section 11}}</ref>
The Morrígan also appears in the ''[[Cath Maige Tuired]]'' ("''The Battle of Magh Tuireadh''").<ref>{{cite web |title=The Second Battle of Moytura |url=https://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G300011/index.html |website=Corpus of Electronic Texts Edition}}</ref> On [[Samhain]], she keeps a tryst with the [[Dagda]] before the battle against the [[Fomorians]]. When he meets her, she is washing herself, standing with one foot on either side of the river Unius, near [[Riverstown|Riverstown, Co. Sligo]]. In some sources, she is believed to have created the river. After they have sex, the Morrígan promises to summon the magicians of Ireland to cast spells on behalf of the Tuatha Dé, and to destroy Indech, the Fomorian king, taking from him "the blood of his heart and the kidneys of his valour." Later, we are told, she would bring two handfuls of his blood and deposit them in the same river (however, we are also told later in the text that Indech was killed by [[Ogma]]).
As battle is about to be joined, the Tuatha Dé leader, [[Lugh|Lug]], asks each what power they bring to the battle. The Morrígan's reply is difficult to interpret, but involves pursuing, destroying and subduing. When she comes to the battlefield, she chants a poem, and immediately the battle breaks and the Fomorians are driven into the sea. After the battle, she chants another poem celebrating the victory and prophesying the end of the world.<ref name="CMT166-CELT">{{cite book |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G300010/text167.html |title=Cath Maige Tuired |chapter=The Second Battle of Mag Tuired |author=Unknown}}</ref><ref name="CMT167">{{cite book |first=Elizabeth A. (ed. & trans.) |last=Gray |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T300010/index.html |title=Cath Maige Tuired: The Second Battle of Mag Tuired |section=167 |year=1982}}</ref>
In another story, she lures away the bull of a woman named Odras. Odras then follows the Morrígan to the [[Otherworld]], via the cave of [[Rathcroghan|Cruachan]], which is said to be her "fit abode." When Odras falls asleep, the Morrígan turns her into a pool of water that feeds into the [[River Shannon]].<ref>[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T106500D/text050.html "Odras"], from ''[[Dindsenchas|The Metrical Dindshenchas]]'' [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T106500D/index.html Vol 4], translated by E. Gwynn</ref> In this story, the Morrigan is called the Dagda's envious queen, fierce of mood. She is also called a "shape-shifter" and a cunning raven caller whose pleasure was in mustered hosts.
==Nature and role==
The Morrígan is often considered a [[Triple deities#Triple goddesses|triple goddess]], but this triple nature is ambiguous and inconsistent. These triple appearances are partially due to the Celtic significance of [[3#Religion|threeness]].<ref name=":0" /> Sometimes she appears as one of three sisters, the daughters of [[Ernmas]]: Morrígan, [[Badb]] and [[Macha (Irish mythology)|Macha]].<ref name="Invasions">{{cite book | author=Macalister, R.A.S. (trans.) | title =Lebor Gabála Érenn: Book of the Taking of Ireland Part 1-5 | publisher = Irish Texts Society | year =1941 | location =Dublin}}</ref> Sometimes the trinity consists of Badb, Macha and Anand, collectively known as the ''Morrígna''. Occasionally, [[Nemain]] or [[Nemain|Fea]] appear in the various combinations. However, the Morrígan can also appear alone,<ref name="CELT-Regamna"/> and her name is sometimes used interchangeably with Badb.<ref name="CMT166-CELT"/>
The Morrígan is mainly associated with war and fate, and is often interpreted as a "war goddess". [[W. M. Hennessy|W. M. Hennessy's]] ''The Ancient Irish Goddess of War'', written in 1870, was influential in establishing this interpretation.<ref>[[W. M. Hennessy]], [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/aigw/index.htm "The Ancient Irish Goddess of War"], ''[[Revue Celtique]]'' 1, 1870–72, pp. 32–37</ref> She is said to derive pleasure from mustered hosts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://celt.ucc.ie//published/T106500D/text049.html|title=Part 49 of The Metrical Dindshenchas|website=celt.ucc.ie}}</ref> Her role often involves premonitions of a particular warrior's violent death, suggesting a link with the [[banshee]] of later folklore. This connection is further noted by [[Patricia Lysaght]]: "In certain areas of Ireland this supernatural being is, in addition to the name banshee, also called the ''badhb''".<ref>{{cite book |first=Patricia |last=Lysaght |title=The Banshee: The Irish Death Messenger |year=1986 |isbn=1-57098-138-8 |page=15}}</ref> Her role was to not only be a symbol of imminent death, but to also influence the outcome of war. Most often, she did this by appearing as a crow flying overhead, and would either inspire fear or courage in the hearts of the warriors. In some cases, she is written to have appeared in visions to those who are destined to die in battle as washing their bloody armor. In this specific role, she is also given the role of foretelling imminent death with a particular emphasis on the individual.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Celtic Myths and Legends |last=Rolleston |first=T. W. |publisher=Barnes and Noble |year=1911 |isbn=978-0-7607-8335-1 |location=New York}}</ref> There are also a few rare accounts where she would join in the battle itself as a warrior and show her favouritism in a more direct manner.<ref>{{cite book |first=Arthur |last=Cotterell |title=The Encyclopedia of Mythology |year=2010 |pages=102, 152}}</ref>
The Morrígan is also associated with the land and animals, particularly livestock. [[Máire Herbert]] argues that "war ''per se'' is not a primary aspect of the role of the goddess." Herbert suggests that "her activities have a [[Tutelary deity|tutelary]] character. She oversees the land, its stock and its society. Her shape-shifting is an expression of her affinity with the whole living universe."<ref>{{cite book |first=Máire |last=Herbert |chapter=Transmutations of an Irish Goddess |editor1-first=Miranda |editor1-last=Green |editor2-first=Sandra |editor2-last=Billington |title=The Concept of the Goddess |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1996 |page=145}}</ref> Patricia Lysaght notes that the ''[[Cath Maige Tuired]]'' depicts the Morrígan as "a protectress of her people's interests" and associates her with both war and fertility.<ref name="lysaght"/> According to [[Proinsias Mac Cana]], the goddess in Ireland is "primarily concerned with the prosperity of the land: its fertility, its animal life, and (when it is conceived as a political unit) its security against external forces."<ref name="MacCana"/> Likewise, [[Maria Tymoczko]] writes, "The welfare and fertility of a people depend on their security against external aggression," and notes that "warlike action can thus have a protective aspect."<ref name="tymoczko"/> It is therefore suggested that the Morrígan is a manifestation of the [[Sovereignty goddess|earth- and sovereignty-goddess]],{{sfn|Ó hÓgáin|1991|pp=307–309}}<ref name="Koch, John T. 2006"/> chiefly representing the goddess' role as guardian of the territory and its people.<ref name="lysaght"/><ref name="tymoczko"/> She can be interpreted as providing political or military aid, or protection to the king—acting as a goddess of sovereignty, not necessarily of war.
It has also been suggested that she was closely linked to the ''[[fianna]]'', and that these groups may have been in some way dedicated to her.{{sfn|Epstein|1998|p=148}} These were "bands of youthful warrior-hunters, living on the borders of civilized society and indulging in lawless activities for a time before inheriting property and taking their places as members of settled, landed communities."<ref>{{cite book |first=Maire |last=West |chapter=Aspects of ''díberg'' in the tale ''[[The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel|Togail Bruidne Da Derga]]'' |title=Zeitschrift für Celtische Philologie |volume=49–50 |page=950}}</ref> If true, her worship may have resembled that of [[Perchta]] groups in Germanic areas.<ref>{{cite book |first=Carlo |last=Ginzburg |title=Ecstasies: Deciphering the Witches' Sabbath |location=New York |publisher=Pantheon Books |year=1991 |isbn=0-394-58163-6 |pages=6–7, 91, 101–2, 115 (note 47), 146 (note 62), 193, 182–204, 262, as well as numerous related references throughout Parts Two and Three}}</ref>
There is a [[burnt mound]] site in [[County Tipperary]] known as ''Fulacht na Mór Ríoghna'' ("cooking pit of the Mórrígan"). The [[Fulacht fiadh|fulachtaí]] sites are found in wild areas, and are usually associated with outsiders such as the fianna, as well as with the hunting of deer. There may be a link with the three mythical [[hag]]s who cook the meal of dogflesh that brings the hero [[Cúchulainn]] to his doom. The ''Dá Chích na Morrígna'' ("two breasts of the Mórrígan"), a pair of hills near [[Brú na Bóinne]] in [[County Meath]], suggest to some a role as a [[tutelary deity|tutelary goddess]], comparable to [[Anu (goddess)|Anu]], who has her own hills, ''[[Paps of Anu|Dá Chích Anann]]'' ("the breasts of Anu") in [[County Kerry]]. Other goddesses known to have similar hills are [[Áine]] and [[Áine#Related goddesses|Grian]] of [[County Limerick]] who, in addition to a tutelary function, also have solar attributes.
==Arthurian legend==
{{further|Morgan le Fay}}
There have been attempts by some modern researchers and authors of fiction to link the Morrígan with the character of Morgan, the latter often being depicted in the legend as a [[fairy]] or otherwise supernatural sister of [[King Arthur]]. Morgan first appears in literature in [[Geoffrey of Monmouth|Geoffrey of Monmouth's]] 12th-century ''[[Vita Merlini]]'' as a goddess-like figure in no blood relation to Arthur, whom she takes to her Otherworld style land of [[Avalon]] following his mortal wound in a battle. In some Arthurian texts, such as ''[[Sir Gawain and the Green Knight]]'', Morgan is portrayed as a hag whose actions set into motion a bloody trail of events that lead the hero into numerous instances of danger. Morgan is also depicted as a seductress, much like the older legends of the Morrígan, and has numerous lovers whom she might be even abducting for this purpose (as in some stories of [[Lancelot]] and [[Ogier the Dane]], among others). The character is frequently depicted as wielding power over others to achieve her own purposes, allowing those actions to play out over time, to the benefit or detriment of other characters.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Morgan le Fay in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight|url = http://www.shmoop.com/sir-gawain-green-knight/morgan-le-fay.html}}</ref>
However, while the creators of the literary character of Morgan may have been somewhat inspired by the much older tales of the goddess, the relationship likely ends there. Scholars such as Rosalind Clark hold that the names are unrelated, the Welsh "Morgan" (Wales being the original source of the [[Matter of Britain]]) being derived from root words associated with the sea, while the Irish "Morrígan" has its roots either in a word for "terror" or a word for "greatness".{{sfn|Clark|1990|pp=21–23, 208n.5}}
==Modern depictions==
{{main|Irish mythology in popular culture#The Morrígan}}
==See also==
* [[Bean nighe]]
* [[Clíodhna]]
* [[Mongfind]]
* [[Scáthach]]
==References==
* {{cite book |first=Rosalind |last=Clark |title=The Great Queens: Irish Goddesses from the Morrígan to Cathleen Ní Houlihan |series=Irish Literary Studies |volume=Book 34 |year=1990 |isbn=0-389-20928-7}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Barry Cunliffe |first=Barry |last=Cunliffe |title=The Ancient Celts}}
* {{cite book |author=DIL |title=Dictionary of the Irish Language |edition=Compact |publisher=Royal Irish Academy |year=1990}}
* {{cite thesis |first=Angelique Gulermovich |last=Epstein |title=War Goddess: The Morrígan and her Germano-Celtic Counterparts |date=September 1998 |url=https://b-ok.cc/book/3646002/a04dac |publisher=University of California |location=Los Angeles}}
* {{cite book |first=James |last=MacKillop |title=Dictionary of Celtic Mythology |year=1998 | publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-280120-3}}
* {{cite book |first=Daithi |last=Ó hÓgáin |title=Myth, Legend and Romance: An Encyclopedia of the Irish Folk Tradition |publisher=Prentice Hall Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0132759595 |edition=1st |location=New York |oclc=22181514}}
* {{cite book |first=Cecile (ed & trans) |last=O'Rahilly |author-link=Cecile O'Rahilly |url=http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T301012/index.html |title=Táin Bó Cuailnge ''Recension 1'' |year=1976}}
* {{cite book |first=Anne |last=Ross |title=Pagan Celtic Britain: Studies in Iconography |year=1967}}
* {{cite book |first=Anne |last=Ross |chapter=The Divine Hag of the Pagan Celts |editor-first=V. |editor-last=Newall |title=The Witch Figure}}
==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050212132339/http://snlemons.iweb.bsu.edu/docs/Celtic/Morrigan%20Thesis.ZIP War Goddess: the Morrígan and her Germano-Celtic Counterparts] thesis by Angelique Gulermovich Epstein ([[ZIP (file format)|ZIP]] format)
== 参考文献 ==
