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=== 語源 === | === 語源 === | ||
古英語の*Ēastreと古高ドイツ語の*Ôstaraは同義語であり、共通の起源を持つ言語的な兄弟である。これらは原ゲルマン語の同名異義語*Austrō(n)に由来し<ref>Simek, 1996, p74</ref><ref>Kroonen, 2013, p43</ref>、それ自体が「(赤く)輝く」という意味のPIE語源*h₂ews-から拡張した原インド・ヨーロッパ語(PIE)*h₂ews-reh₂-(参照:バルト語 *auš(t)ra 『夜明け、朝』)の派生とされている<ref name="WATKINS-2021">Watkins 2006 [2000]: 2021.</ref><ref>Kroonen, 2013, p43</ref>。現代英語のeastもこの語源に由来し、原始ゲルマン語の副詞*aust(e)raz(「東、東方」)を経て、それ以前のPIE *h₂ews-tero- (「東、夜明けに向かって」)<ref>Kroonen, 2013, p43</ref>に由来している。 | 古英語の*Ēastreと古高ドイツ語の*Ôstaraは同義語であり、共通の起源を持つ言語的な兄弟である。これらは原ゲルマン語の同名異義語*Austrō(n)に由来し<ref>Simek, 1996, p74</ref><ref>Kroonen, 2013, p43</ref>、それ自体が「(赤く)輝く」という意味のPIE語源*h₂ews-から拡張した原インド・ヨーロッパ語(PIE)*h₂ews-reh₂-(参照:バルト語 *auš(t)ra 『夜明け、朝』)の派生とされている<ref name="WATKINS-2021">Watkins 2006 [2000]: 2021.</ref><ref>Kroonen, 2013, p43</ref>。現代英語のeastもこの語源に由来し、原始ゲルマン語の副詞*aust(e)raz(「東、東方」)を経て、それ以前のPIE *h₂ews-tero- (「東、夜明けに向かって」)<ref>Kroonen, 2013, p43</ref>に由来している。 | ||
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1958年、ドイツのモルケンハーフ付近で、ローマ・ゲルマン語系の三女神像(matronae Austriahenae)への150以上の奉納碑文が発見された。これらの碑文の多くは不完全な状態であるが、少なくとも適度に判読可能なものが多い。これらの碑文の中には、Austriatesと書かれたものもあり、明らかに社会集団の名前であることがわかる<ref>Shaw, 2011, pp52, 63</ref>。これらの女神の名前は、確かにaustri-という語源に由来しており、ゲルマン語であれば、古英語のEostreと同義であろう。しかし、女神たちは完全に独立しているかもしれない<ref>Sermon, 2008, p340</ref>。 | 1958年、ドイツのモルケンハーフ付近で、ローマ・ゲルマン語系の三女神像(matronae Austriahenae)への150以上の奉納碑文が発見された。これらの碑文の多くは不完全な状態であるが、少なくとも適度に判読可能なものが多い。これらの碑文の中には、Austriatesと書かれたものもあり、明らかに社会集団の名前であることがわかる<ref>Shaw, 2011, pp52, 63</ref>。これらの女神の名前は、確かにaustri-という語源に由来しており、ゲルマン語であれば、古英語のEostreと同義であろう。しかし、女神たちは完全に独立しているかもしれない<ref>Sermon, 2008, p340</ref>。 | ||
− | == | + | == 聖ビード(8世紀)の記述 == |
− | + | 8世紀の著作『De temporum ratione』(「時間の計算」)の第15章(De mensibus Anglorum、「イングランドの月」)で、ビードはイングランド人の固有の月名について述べている。アングロ・サクソンのHrēþ-mōnaþの月の女神レーダー(Rheda)の崇拝について述べた後、BedeはĒosturmōnaþ、女神Ēostreの月について書き記した。 | |
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− | 8世紀の著作『De temporum ratione』(「時間の計算」)の第15章(De mensibus | ||
<blockquote>qui nunc Paschalis mensis interpretatur, quondam a Dea illorum quæ Eostre vocabatur, et cui in illo festa celebrabant nomen habuit: a cujus nomine nunc Paschale tempus cognominant, consueto antiquæ observationis vocabulo gaudia novæ solemnitatis vocantes.<ref name="GILES179">Giles (1843:179).</ref><br /><br /> | <blockquote>qui nunc Paschalis mensis interpretatur, quondam a Dea illorum quæ Eostre vocabatur, et cui in illo festa celebrabant nomen habuit: a cujus nomine nunc Paschale tempus cognominant, consueto antiquæ observationis vocabulo gaudia novæ solemnitatis vocantes.<ref name="GILES179">Giles (1843:179).</ref><br /><br /> | ||
Eosturmonathは、現在では「牧神の月」と訳されているが、かつては彼らの女神Eostreにちなんで呼ばれ、その月に祝祭が祝われた。今、彼らは聖務の季節を彼女の名で呼び、新しい儀式の喜びを古い行事の由緒ある名で呼んでいる<ref name="WALLIS54">Wallis (1999:54).</ref>。</blockquote> | Eosturmonathは、現在では「牧神の月」と訳されているが、かつては彼らの女神Eostreにちなんで呼ばれ、その月に祝祭が祝われた。今、彼らは聖務の季節を彼女の名で呼び、新しい儀式の喜びを古い行事の由緒ある名で呼んでいる<ref name="WALLIS54">Wallis (1999:54).</ref>。</blockquote> | ||
− | 1958年にMatronae | + | 1958年にMatronae Austriahenaeが発見されるまでは、このテーマの研究では、ビードがこの神を創作したのではないかという疑問がしばしば提起されていた。1892年、チャールズ・J・ビルソンは、彼の著作以前の学者たちが、ビードのエオステレの記述の存在について意見が分かれていたことを指摘し、「彼女の存在について疑いを持たない権威者の中には、W・グリム、ヴァッケナゲル、シンロック、そしてウルフがいる」と述べている。一方、ヴァインホルトは文献学的な理由からこの考えを否定しており、ハインリッヒ・レオやヘルマン・オエスレも同様である。クーンは「アングロサクソンのエオストレはビードの発明のようだ」と言い、マンハルトも「語源的なデア・エクス・マキナ(dea ex machina)」として彼女を退けている。ビルソンは、「すべての問題は、......ビードの信憑性にかかっている」とし、「グリムに同意したいのは、この高名な教父は、異教を遠ざけ、自分の知る限りのことを語ってはいないが、この女神の発明を楯にするのは無批判であろう」と書いている。ビルソンは、イギリスのキリスト教化は6世紀末に始まり、7世紀には完成していたと指摘する。ビルソンは、ビードが672年に生まれたことから、「彼の時代にはほとんど消滅していなかった」アングロ・サクソンの土着の女神たちの名前を学ぶ機会があったに違いないと主張した<ref name="BILLSON448">Billson (1892:448).</ref>。 |
− | + | 1984年、言語学者ルドルフ・シメックは、疑問の声はあるものの、ビードのエオステレに関する記述を無視することはできないと述べた。シメックは、「そうでなければ、ゲルマンの女神(と母神)はほとんど繁栄と成長に関係している」と推論し、名称にかかわらず「日の出の女神」ではなく「春らしい豊穣の女神」を想定しなければならないと論じた。シメックは、同じくビードが証言している女神レーダ(Rheda)との比較を指摘した<ref>Simek, 1996, p74</ref>。 | |
− | + | 2011年、フィリップ・A・ショーは、このテーマについて、「ビードの女神エオステレに対する賛否両論の長い歴史があり、どちらかの側にかなり極端な立場をとる学者もいる」「女神に対するいくつかの説が大衆文化的に脚光を浴びている。しかし、この議論の多くは、1958年になってから発見された重要な証拠を知らないまま行われた。その証拠である、モルケン=ハルフ付近で発見された150以上のローマ・ゲルマン語の奉納碑文には、「matronae Austriahenae」という神々が描かれており、その年代はおよそ紀元150年から250年にかけてとされている。」とショーは指摘した。これらの碑文のほとんどは不完全な状態であるが、ほとんどは碑文を適度に明瞭にするのに十分な完成度を持っている。1966年には、これらの名前の語源をエオステレとゲルマン人の人名に見られる要素に関連付ける学者が出ている<ref>Shaw, 2011, p52</ref>。ショーは、入手可能な証拠から機能的な解釈をすることに反対し、「彼女の名前の語源的なつながりから、彼女の崇拝者たちは、彼女が持っていた機能よりも、地理的・社会的な関係をより重要視していたと考えられる」と結論づけている<ref>Shaw, 2011, pp70–71</ref>。 | |
== 理論と解釈 == | == 理論と解釈 == | ||
=== ヤコブ・グリム === | === ヤコブ・グリム === | ||
− | + | In his 1835 {{lang|de|[[Deutsche Mythologie]]|italic=yes}}, [[Jacob Grimm]] cites comparative evidence to reconstruct a potential [[continental Germanic mythology|continental Germanic goddess]] whose name would have been preserved in the [[Old High German]] name of Easter, *{{lang|goh|Ostara}}. Addressing skepticism towards goddesses mentioned by Bede, Grimm comments that "there is nothing improbable in them, nay the first of them is justified by clear traces in the vocabularies of Germanic tribes."<ref name=GRIMM289>Grimm (1882:289).</ref> Specifically regarding {{lang|ang|Ēostre|italic=no}}, Grimm continues that: | |
+ | <blockquote> | ||
+ | We Germans to this day call April {{lang|gmh|ostermonat}}, and {{lang|goh|ôstarmânoth}} is found as early as [[Einhard|Eginhart]] ({{lang|la|temp. [[Vita Karoli Magni|Car. Mag.]]}}). The great Christian festival, which usually falls in April or the end of March, bears in the oldest of OHG remains the name {{lang|goh|ôstarâ}} ... it is mostly found in the plural, because two days ... were kept at Easter. This {{lang|goh|Ostarâ|italic=yes}}, like the [Anglo-Saxon] {{lang|ang|Eástre}}, must in heathen religion have denoted a higher being, whose worship was so firmly rooted, that the Christian teachers tolerated the name, and applied it to one of their own grandest anniversaries.<ref name="GRIMM290">Grimm (1882:290).</ref> | ||
+ | </blockquote> | ||
+ | Grimm notes that "all of the nations bordering on us have retained the Biblical {{lang|la|pascha}}; even [[Ulfilas|Ulphilas]] writes {{lang|got|𐍀𐌰𐍃𐌺𐌰}}, not {{lang|got|𐌰𐌿𐍃𐍄𐍂𐍉}} ({{lang|got-Latn|paska}} not {{lang|got-Latn|áustrô}}), though he must have known the word". Grimm details that the Old High German adverb {{lang|goh|ôstar}} "expresses movement towards the rising sun", as did the [[Old Norse]] term {{lang|non|austr}}, and potentially also Anglo-Saxon {{lang|ang|ēastor}} and Gothic {{lang|got|[[Asterisk#Historical linguistics|*]]𐌰𐌿𐍃𐍄𐍂}} ({{lang|got-Latn|[[Asterisk#Historical linguistics|*]]áustr}}). Grimm compares these terms to the identical Latin term {{lang|la|auster}}, and contends that the cult of the goddess may have been centred around an Old Norse form, {{lang|non|Austra}}, or that her cult may have already been extinct by the time of Christianization.<ref name=GRIMM290-291>Grimm (1882:290—291).</ref> | ||
− | <blockquote> | + | Grimm notes that the Old Norse ''[[Prose Edda]]'' book {{lang|non|[[Gylfaginning]]|italic=yes}} attests to a male being called {{lang|non|[[Norðri, Suðri, Austri and Vestri|Austri]]}}, whom he describes as a "spirit of light." Grimm comments that a female version would have been {{lang|gem-x-proto|Austra}}, yet that the High German and Saxon peoples seem to have only formed {{lang|goh|Ostarâ}} and {{lang|osx|Eástre}}, feminine, and not {{lang|goh|Ostaro}} and {{lang|osx|Eástra}}, masculine. Grimm additionally speculates on the nature of the goddess and surviving folk customs that may have been associated with her in Germany: |
+ | <blockquote> | ||
+ | {{lang|goh|Ostara}}, {{lang|osx|Eástre}} seems therefore to have been the divinity of the radiant dawn, of upspringing light, a spectacle that brings joy and blessing, whose meaning could be easily adapted by the resurrection-day of the Christian's God. ''Bonfires'' were lighted at Easter and according to popular belief of long standing, the moment the sun rises on Easter Sunday morning, he gives ''three joyful leaps'', he dances for joy ... Water drawn on the Easter morning is, like that at Christmas, holy and healing ... here also heathen notions seems to have grafted themselves on great Christian festivals. Maidens clothed in white, who at Easter, at the season of returning spring, show themselves in clefts of the rock and on mountains, are suggestive of the ancient goddess.<ref name="GRIMM291">Grimm (1882:291).</ref> | ||
+ | </blockquote> | ||
− | + | In the second volume of {{lang|de|Deutsche Mythologie}}, Grimm picked up the subject of Ostara again, speculating on possible connections between the goddess and various German Easter customs, including Easter eggs: | |
− | + | <blockquote> | |
− | + | But if we admit, goddesses, then, in addition to [[Nerthus]], {{lang|goh|Ostara}} has the strongest claim to consideration. To what we said on p. 290 I can add some significant facts. The heathen Easter had much in common with May-feast and the reception of spring, particularly in the matter of bonfires. Then, through long ages there seem to have lingered among the people ''Easter-games'' so-called, which the church itself had to tolerate : I allude especially to the custom of ''Easter eggs'', and to the ''Easter tale'' which preachers told from the pulpit for the people's amusement, connecting it with Christian reminiscences.<ref name="GRIMM780-781">Grimm (1883:780–781).</ref> | |
− | + | </blockquote> | |
− | <blockquote> | + | Grimm commented on further Easter time customs, including unique sword dances and particular baked goods ("pastry of heathenish form"). In addition, Grimm weighed a potential connection to the [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] spring goddess {{lang|sla|[[Vesna]]}} and the Lithuanian {{lang|lt|[[Vasara (mythology)|Vasara]]}}.<ref name="GRIMM780-781"/> |
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− | + | According to anthropologist Krystal D'Costa, there is no evidence to connect the tradition of Easter eggs with Ostara. Eggs became a symbol in Christianity associated with rebirth as early as the 1st century AD, via the iconography of the [[Phoenix (mythology)|Phoenix]] egg. D'Costa theorizes that eggs became associated with Easter specifically in medieval Europe, when eating them was prohibited during the fast of [[Lent]]. D'Costa highlights that a common practice in England at that time was for children to go door-to-door begging for eggs on the Saturday before Lent began. People handed out eggs as special treats for children prior to their fast.<ref name="D'Costa"/> | |
− | + | ===Connection to Easter Hares=== | |
+ | [[File:Easter Bunny Postcard 1907.jpg|thumb|An Easter postcard from 1907 depicting a rabbit]] | ||
+ | In Northern Europe, Easter imagery often involves [[easter Bunny|hares and rabbits]].<ref name="Bott 2011">{{cite web | last=Bott | first=Adrian | title=The modern myth of the Easter bunny | website=The Guardian | date=2011-04-23 | url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/apr/23/easter-pagan-roots }}</ref> The first scholar to make a connection between the goddess Eostre and hares was Adolf Holtzmann in his book ''Deutsche Mythologie''. Holtzmann wrote of the tradition, "the Easter Hare is inexplicable to me, but probably the hare was the sacred animal of Ostara; just as there is a hare on the statue of [[Abnoba]]." Citing folk [[Easter customs]] in [[Leicestershire]], England, where "the profits of the land called Harecrop Leys were applied to providing a meal which was thrown on the ground at the 'Hare-pie Bank'", late 19th-century scholar [[Charles Isaac Elton]] speculated on a connection between these customs and the worship of {{lang|ang|Ēostre|italic=no}}.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Elton, Charles Isaac |author-link=Charles Isaac Elton |title=Origins of English History |journal=Nature |date=1882 |volume=25 |issue=648 |page=391 |doi=10.1038/025501a0 |bibcode=1882Natur..25..501T |s2cid=4097604 |url=https://archive.org/stream/originsofenglis00elto#page/390/mode/2up/search/harecrop}}</ref> In his late 19th-century study of the hare in folk custom and mythology, Charles J. Billson cited numerous incidents of folk customs involving hares around the Easter season in Northern Europe. Billson said that "whether there was a goddess named {{lang|ang|Ēostre|italic=no}}, or not, and whatever connection the hare may have had with the ritual of Saxon or British worship, there are good grounds for believing that the sacredness of this animal reaches back into an age still more remote, where it is probably a very important part of the great Spring Festival of the prehistoric inhabitants of this island."<ref name="BILLSON448"/> | ||
− | + | Adolf Holtzmann had also speculated that "the hare must once have been a bird, because it lays eggs" in modern German folklore. From this statement, numerous later sources built a modern legend in which the goddess Eostre transformed a bird into an egg-laying hare.<ref name=Winick2016>Winick, Stephen. [https://blogs.loc.gov/folklife/2016/04/ostara-and-the-hare/ Ostara and the Hare: Not Ancient, but Not As Modern As Some Skeptics Think]. ''Folklife Today'', 28 Apr 2016. Accessed 8 May 2019 at https://blogs.loc.gov/folklife/2016/04/ostara-and-the-hare/</ref> A response to a question about the origins of Easter hares in the 8 June 1889 issue of the journal ''American Notes and Queries'' stated: "In Germany and among the Pennsylvania Germans toy rabbits or hares made of canton flannel stuffed with cotton are given as gifts on Easter morning. The children are told that this Osh’ter has laid the Easter eggs. This curious idea is thus explained: The hare was originally a bird, and was changed into a quadruped by the goddess Ostara; in gratitude to Ostara or Eastre, the hare exercises its original bird function to lay eggs for the goddess on her festal day."<ref>''American Notes and Queries'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=-g48AQAAMAAJ&lpg=PA64&ots=l0_sPgX_SR&pg=PA64#v=onepage&q&f=false June 8, 1889, pp. 64-65].</ref> According to folklorist Stephen Winick, by 1900, many popular sources had picked up the story of Eostre and the hare. One described the story as one of the oldest in mythology, "despite the fact that it was then less than twenty years old."<ref name=Winick2016/> | |
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− | + | Some scholars have further linked customs and imagery involving hares to both {{lang|ang|Ēostre|italic=no}} and the Norse goddess {{lang|non|[[Freyja]]|italic=no}}. Writing in 1972, John Andrew Boyle cited commentary contained within an etymology dictionary by A. Ernout and [[Antoine Meillet|A. Meillet]], where the authors write that "Little else ... is known about [{{lang|ang|Ēostre|italic=no}}], but it has been suggested that her lights, as goddess of the dawn, were carried by hares. And she certainly represented spring [[fecundity]], and love and carnal pleasure that leads to fecundity." Boyle responded that nothing is known about {{lang|ang|Ēostre|italic=no}} outside of Bede's single passage, that the authors had seemingly accepted the identification of {{lang|ang|Ēostre|italic=no}} with the Norse goddess {{lang|non|Freyja|italic=no}}, yet that the hare is not associated with {{lang|non|Freyja|italic=no}} either. Boyle writes that "her carriage, we are told by [[Snorri Sturluson|Snorri]], was drawn by a pair of cats — animals, it is true, which like hares were the familiars of witches, with whom {{lang|non|Freyja|italic=no}} seems to have much in common." However, Boyle adds that "on the other hand, when the authors speak of the hare as the 'companion of [[Aphrodite]] and of [[satyr]]s and [[cupid]]s' and point out that 'in the [[Middle Ages]] it appears beside the figure of [[Luxuria (mythology)|Luxuria]]', they are on much surer ground and can adduce the evidence of their illustrations."{{sfn|Boyle||1973|pp=323—324}} | |
− | + | The earliest evidence for the Easter Hare (''Osterhase'') was recorded in south-west Germany in 1678 by the professor of medicine [[Georg Franck von Franckenau]], but it remained unknown in other parts of Germany until the 18th century. Scholar Richard Sermon writes that "hares were frequently seen in gardens in spring, and thus may have served as a convenient explanation for the origin of the colored eggs hidden there for children. Alternatively, there is a European tradition that hares laid eggs, since a hare's scratch or form and a [[lapwing]]'s nest look very similar, and both occur on grassland and are first seen in the spring. In the nineteenth century the influence of Easter cards, toys, and books was to make the Easter Hare/Rabbit popular throughout Europe. German immigrants then exported the custom to Britain and America where it evolved into the [[Easter Bunny]]."{{Sfn|Sermon|2008|p=341}} | |
− | + | ==In modern culture== | |
+ | The concept of *{{lang|goh|Ostara}} as reconstructed by Jacob Grimm and Adolf Holtzmann has had a strong influence on European culture since the 19th century, with many fanciful legends and associations growing up around the figure of the goddess in popular articles based on the speculation of these early folklorists.<ref name=Winick2016/> | ||
− | == | + | A holiday named for the goddess is part of the neopagan [[Wicca]]n [[Wheel of the Year]] (Ostara, 21 March).<ref name="HUBBARD175">Hubbard (2007:175).</ref> In some forms of [[Heathenry (new religious movement)|Germanic neopaganism]], {{lang|ang|Ēostre|italic=no}} (or Ostara) is venerated. Regarding this veneration, Carole M. Cusack comments that, among adherents, {{lang|ang|Ēostre|italic=no}} is "associated with the coming of spring and the dawn, and her festival is celebrated at the [[march equinox|spring equinox]]. Because she brings renewal, rebirth from the death of winter, some Heathens associate {{lang|ang|Ēostre|italic=no}} with {{lang|non|[[Iðunn]]|italic=no}}, keeper of the apples of youth in [[Norse mythology|Scandinavian mythology]]".<ref name="CUSACK354-355">Cusack (2008:354–355).</ref> |
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− | + | The name has been adopted for an [[asteroid]] ([[343 Ostara]], 1892 by [[Max Wolf]]),<ref name="SCHMADEL44">Schmadel (2003:44)</ref> In music, the name {{lang|goh|Ostara}} has been adopted as a name by the musical group [[Ostara (band)|Ostara]],<ref name="DIESEL-GERTEN136">Diesel, Gerten (2007:136).</ref> and as the names of albums by [[Zoviet France|:zoviet*france:]] (''Eostre'', 1984) and [[The Wishing Tree (band)|The Wishing Tree]] (''[[Ostara (album)|Ostara]]'', 2009). | |
− | + | Politically, the name of Ostara was in the early 20th century invoked as the name of a [[Pan-Germanism|German nationalist]] [[Ostara (magazine)|magazine]], book series and publishing house established in 1905 at {{lang|de|[[Mödling]]||italic=no}}, [[Austria]].{{sfn|Simek|1996|p=255}} | |
− | + | In the first season of the TV series ''[[American Gods (TV series)|American Gods]],'' based on the [[American Gods|novel of the same name]], Ostara is portrayed by [[Kristin Chenoweth]]. In the series, Ostara has survived into the modern age by forming an alliance with the Goddess of Media ([[Gillian Anderson]]) and capitalising on the Christian holiday. Odin ([[Ian McShane]]) forces her to accept that those who celebrate Easter are worshipping Jesus and not her, causing her to join his rebellion against the New Gods.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Griffiths |first1=Eleanor Blye |title=''American Gods'' mythology guide: Meet Germanic spring goddess Ostara |url=http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2017-06-19/american-gods-mythology-guide-meet-germanic-spring-goddess-ostara |access-date=21 June 2017 |work=[[Radio Times]] |date=19 June 2017 }}</ref> | |
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+ | In 1853, Scottish protestant minister [[Alexander Hislop]] published ''[[The Two Babylons]]'', an anti-Catholic tract. In the tract, Hislop connects modern English ''Easter'' with the [[East Semitic]] theonym ''[[Ishtar]]'' by way of [[folk etymology]]. For example, from ''The Two Babylons'', third edition: | ||
<blockquote> | <blockquote> | ||
− | + | What means the term Easter itself? It is not a Christian name. It bears its Chaldean origin on its very forehead. Easter is nothing else than [[Astarte]], one of the titles of [[Beltis]], the [[Queen of Heaven (antiquity)|queen of heaven]], whose name, as pronounced by the people of [[Ninevah]], was evidently identical with that now in common use in this country. This name as found by Layard on the Assyrian monuments, is Ishtar.<ref name="HISLOP-103">Hislop (1903:103).</ref> | |
</blockquote> | </blockquote> | ||
+ | Because Hislop's claims have no linguistics foundation, his claims were rejected, but the ''Two Babylons'' would go on to have some influence in popular culture.<ref name="HISLOP-RESPONSE">See, for example, contemporary discussion in anonymous (1859:338-340).</ref> In the 2000s, a popular [[Internet meme]] similarly claimed an incorrect linguistic connection between English ''Easter'' and ''Ishtar''.<ref name="D'Costa">{{Cite web |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/anthropology-in-practice/beyond-ishtar-the-tradition-of-eggs-at-easter/ |title=Beyond Ishtar: The Tradition of Eggs at Easter |last=D'Costa |first=Krystal |website=Scientific American |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328170422/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/anthropology-in-practice/beyond-ishtar-the-tradition-of-eggs-at-easter/ |archive-date=28 March 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=28 March 2018}}</ref> | ||
− | + | The Danish TV series ''[[Equinox (2020 TV series)|Equinox]]'' has the concept of the Ostara and the Hare King as a central theme in the plot.<ref>https://signalhorizon.com/netflixs-equinox-ending-explained-ostara-eostre-and-the-hare-king-come-togeether-in-this-supernatural-twister/ {{Dead link|date=February 2022}}</ref> | |
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− | == | + | ==See also== |
− | * [[ | + | * {{lang|non|[[Aurvandil]]}}, a Germanic being associated with stars, the first element of whose name is cognate to {{lang|ang|Ēostre}} |
− | * [[ | + | * [[Dellingr]], a potential personification of the dawn in Norse mythology |
− | + | * {{lang|ang|[[Hengist and Horsa]]}}, [[euhemerism|euhemerised]] Old English deities, possibly extending from Proto-Indo-European religion | |
− | * [[ | + | * {{lang|ang|[[Mōdraniht]]}}, the Old English "Mother's night," also attested by Bede |
− | + | * [[Old High German lullaby]], a lullaby in Old High German that mentions {{lang|goh|Ostara|italic=no}}, generally held to be a literary forgery | |
− | + | * {{lang|ang|[[Týr|Tīw]]}}, the Old English extension of the Proto-Indo-European [[sky deity]] | |
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* [[稚日女尊]]:日本神話。エオステレに相当する女神と考える。 | * [[稚日女尊]]:日本神話。エオステレに相当する女神と考える。 | ||
− | == | + | ==References== |
− | + | * Anonymous (1859). [https://books.google.com/books?id=KWpFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR6#v=onepage&q&f=false Review: ''The Two Babylons''] in ''[[Saturday Review (London newspaper)|The Saturday Review]]'', Vol. VIII, pp. 338–340. John W. Parker and Son. | |
− | + | * [[Robert Barnhart|Barnhart, Robert K.]] (1995). ''The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology: The Origins of American English Words''. [[HarperCollins]]. {{ISBN|0-06-270084-7}} | |
− | * | + | * [[Charles J. Billson|Billson, Charles J.]] (1892). "[[:s:Folk-Lore/Volume 3/The Easter Hare|The Easter Hare]]" as published in ''[[Folk-Lore]]'', Vol. 3, No. 4 (December 1892). Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of Folklore Enterprises Ltd. |
− | * | + | * {{Cite journal|last=Boyle|first=John Andrew|date=1973|title=The Hare in Myth and Reality: A Review Article|journal=Folklore|volume=84|issue=4|pages=313–326|doi=10.1080/0015587X.1973.9716525|issn=0015-587X|jstor=1259837}} |
− | * | + | * Cusack, Carole M. (2008). "The Return of the Goddess: Mythology, Witchcraft and Feminist Spirituality" as published in Pizza, Murphy. Lewis, James R. (Editors). ''Handbook of Contemporary Paganism''. [[Brill Publishers]]. {{ISBN|9004163735}} |
− | + | * Diesel, Andreas. Gerten, Dieter (2007). ''Looking for Europe: {{lang|de|Neofolk und Hintergründe|italic=unset}}''. Index Verlag. {{ISBN|3-936878-02-1}} | |
− | + | * Grimm, Jacob (James Steven Stallybrass Trans.) (1882). ''[[Deutsche Mythologie|Teutonic Mythology: Translated from the Fourth Edition with Notes and Appendix]]'' Vol. I. London: George Bell and Sons. | |
− | + | * Grimm, Jacob (James Steven Stallybrass Trans.) (1883). ''[[Deutsche Mythologie|Teutonic Mythology: Translated from the Fourth Edition with Notes and Appendix]]'' Vol. II. London: George Bell and Sons. | |
− | + | * [[Alexander Hislop|Hislop, Alexander]] (1903). ''[[The Two Babylons]]''. Third edition. S.W. Partridge. Web. | |
− | * | + | * Hubbard, Benjamin Jerome. Hatfield, John T. Santucci, James A. (2007). ''An Educator's Classroom Guide to America's Religious Beliefs and Practices''. Libraries Unlimited. {{ISBN|1-59158-409-4}} |
− | + | * [[John Allen Giles|Giles, John Allen]] (1843). ''The Complete Works of the Venerable Bede, in the Original Latin, Collated with the Manuscripts, and Various Print Editions, Accompanied by a New English Translation of the Historical Works, and a Life of the Author. Vol. VI: Scientific Tracts and Appendix.'' London: Whittaker and Co., Ave Maria Lane. | |
− | * | + | * {{Cite book|last=Kroonen|first=Guus|title=Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic|year=2013|publisher=Brill|isbn=9789004183407}} |
− | * | + | * {{cite book|last1=Mallory|first1=J. P.|author-link=J. P. Mallory|last2=Adams|first2=Douglas Q.|author2-link=Douglas Q. Adams|year=1997|title=[[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture]]|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|isbn=1-884964-98-2}} |
− | * | + | * {{Cite journal|last=Sermon|first=Richard|date=2008|title=From Easter to Ostara: the Reinvention of a Pagan Goddess?|journal=Time and Mind|volume=1|issue=3|pages=331–343|doi=10.2752/175169708X329372|s2cid=161574008|issn=1751-696X}} |
− | * | + | * {{Cite book|last=Shaw|first=Philip A.|title=Pagan goddesses in the early Germanic world : Eostre, Hreda and the cult of matrons|date=2011|publisher=Bristol Classical Press|isbn=978-0-7156-3797-5}} |
− | * | + | * [[Lutz D. Schmadel|Schmadel, Lutz D.]] (2003). ''Dictionary of Minor Planet Names'', fifth edition, illustrated. Springer. {{ISBN|3-540-00238-3}} |
− | * | + | * Sievers, Eduard (Albert S. Cook Ed. Trans.) (1903) ''An Old English grammar'' Third Edition. [[Ginn and Company]] |
− | + | * {{Cite book|last=Simek|first=Rudolf|title=Dictionary of Northern Mythology|year=1996|publisher=D.S. Brewer|isbn=978-0-85991-513-7|author-link=Rudolf Simek}} | |
− | * | + | * Wallis, Faith (Trans.) (1999). ''Bede: The Reckoning of Time''. [[Liverpool University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-85323-693-3}} |
− | + | * [[Calvert Watkins|Watkins, Calvert]] (2006 [2000]). ''The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots''. [[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]. {{ISBN|0-618-08250-6}} | |
− | * | + | * {{Cite book|last=West|first=Martin L.|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9|author-link=Martin Litchfield West}} |
− | * | + | * [[Joseph Wright (linguist)|Wright, Joseph]] and Wright, Elisabeth Mary. (1914) ''Old English Grammar'' Second Edition. Humphrey Milford Oxford University Press |
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− | == | + | ==Further reading== |
* Murphy, Luke John and Ameen, Carly. "The Shifting Baselines of the British Hare Goddess". In: ''Open Archaeology'' 6, no. 1 (2020): 214-235. https://doi.org/10.1515/opar-2020-0109 | * Murphy, Luke John and Ameen, Carly. "The Shifting Baselines of the British Hare Goddess". In: ''Open Archaeology'' 6, no. 1 (2020): 214-235. https://doi.org/10.1515/opar-2020-0109 | ||
* Sermon, Richard (2022). "Eostre and the ''Matronae Austriahenae''". In: ''Folklore'', 133:2, 139-157. DOI: 10.1080/0015587X.2021.1959143 | * Sermon, Richard (2022). "Eostre and the ''Matronae Austriahenae''". In: ''Folklore'', 133:2, 139-157. DOI: 10.1080/0015587X.2021.1959143 |